... major part of SITâ s theoretical groundwork was dedica ted to the consequences of. The topics of social perception and attribution occupy a central role in research and practice in clinical psychology. And self-fulfilling prophecies are ubiquitous—even teachers’ expectations about their students’ academic abilities can influence the students’ school performance (Jussim, Robustelli, & Cain, 2009). Conservation of resources (COR) theory examines and describes the nature of psychological stress and its likely consequences. Aboud, F. E., & Doyle, A.-B. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 29–24. (2007). Thinking Like a Social Psychologist about Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination ... 2003). In Prosody-Face Matching, the examinee hears an audio-recorded statement and selects one face from four choices that matches the emotion expressed in the recording. Social Categorization and Stereotyping. It has been argued that there is a kernel of truth in most stereotypes, and this seems to be the case. 165–208). ), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. To get around this problem, social psychologists make use of a number of techniques that help them measure these beliefs more subtly and indirectly. If police officers were actually not that knowledgeable about the city layout, then using this categorization would not be informative. Beliefs about the characteristics of the groups and the members of those groups are known as stereotypes. Prejudice refers to an unjustifiable negative attitude toward an outgroup. 39–89). On the other hand, sometimes these beliefs are negative, and they create negative self-fulfilling prophecies such that we perform more poorly just because of our knowledge about the stereotypes. On the affective side, stereotype threat creates stress as well as a variety of affective responses including anxiety (Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008). 182–222). While previously polarization was primarily seen only in issue-based terms, a new type of division has emerged in the mass public in recent years: Ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party. In one study, the clinical high-risk group performed significantly worse than a matched nonpsychiatric comparison sample on the RAD with a moderate effect size (d=0.47; Green et al., 2012a). Tajfel, H., & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). As you can see in Table 12.1 “Name Confusions”, the mistakes were such that the statements that had actually been made by a man were more frequently wrongly attributed to another man in the group than to another woman, and the statements actually made by a woman were more frequently attributed to other women in the group than to a man. Research surrounding social knowledge is also sparse, and few formal measures of the construct exist (Achim et al., 2012). The book also challenges the conventional wisdom that race is purely a social construction by demonstrating that a common set of abstract principles underlies all systems of racial thinking, whatever other historical and cultural ... One problem is that social categorization distorts our perceptions such that we tend to exaggerate the differences between people from different social groups while at the same time perceiving members of groups (and particularly outgroups) as more similar to each other than they actually are. For instance, the stereotypes (which are held by many people) that women are “nurturing” and that men are “dominant” may occur in part because, on average, men and women find themselves in different social roles within a culture (Eagly & Steffen, 1984). Stereotyping and prejudice begin from social categorization—the natural cognitive process by which we place individuals into social groups. S.E. S.E. For example, peripheral distractor faces in a visual search paradigm (Frischen, Ferrey, Burt, Pistchik, & Fenske, 2012; Raymond, Fenske, & Westoby, 2005), faces associated with unreliable eye gaze in a gaze-cueing task (Bayliss & Tipper, 2006), and faces associated with response inhibition in a go/no-go task (Fenske, Raymond, Kessler, Westoby, & Tipper, 2005) are all rated as looking less trustworthy than corresponding control faces. Perceiving outgroup members as unresponsive: Implications for approach-related emotions, intentions, and behavior. Our friends also tend to hold beliefs similar to ours, and we talk about these beliefs when we get together with them (Schaller & Conway, 1999). âOne must wonder what the effects of social categorization are on social integration and how social ranking systems can affect behavior in the long run.â Your network is your net-worth Despite being a seemingly effective marketing strategy, what are the consequences of using influencer-based marketing techniques? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811. By the 17th century, the term began to refer to physical (phenotypical) traits.Modern science regards race as a social construct, an ⦠Social Psychology Quarterly, 71(1), 12–16. Indeed, several studies have shown that racial in-group members are associated with larger ERP waves and thus more processing approximately 250 ms following stimulus presentation. The speed of these responses is used to determine an individual’s stereotypes or prejudice. (2012), who observed that not only were no-go faces perceived to be less trustworthy but also they elicited enhanced activity in the amygdala during a subsequent recognition task. Chen, M., & Bargh, J. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 3–35. Once our stereotypes and prejudices become established, they are difficult to change and may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, such that our expectations about the group members make the stereotypes come true. (Eds.). Content and application inaccuracy in social stereotyping. Now, rather than perceiving themselves as members of two different groups (men versus women), John and Sarah might suddenly perceive themselves as members of the same social category (students at their college). Stereotype lift. I think you would agree that you are more likely to categorize yourself as a member of your college or university when your basketball or football team has just won a really important game, or at your commencement day ceremony, than you would on a normal evening out with your family. Taken together, these studies and the studies of facial affect recognition show a deficit in social perception in schizotypy that mirrors the results of similar studies conducted in schizophrenia (Kohler et al., 2003; Tseng et al., 2013). The game was rough, with lots of penalties especially against Dartmouth, and Princeton's star All-American selection Dick Kazmaier was injured in the rough play. Tajfel found that the lines were perceived differently when they were categorized, such that the differences between the groups and the similarities within the groups were emphasized. Specifically, the bilateral amygdala patients rated untrustworthy-looking faces as being more trustworthy and approachable than did controls, brain-damaged controls, or unilateral amygdala lesion patients. When White men can’t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Because Black students are aware of the (inaccurate) stereotype that “Blacks are intellectually inferior to Whites,” this stereotype might create a negative expectation, which might interfere with their performance on intellectual tests through fear of confirming that stereotype. Describe how negative group stereotypes and prejudice are socialized. First Published in 2000. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company. Rosenhan essentially showed that even educated professionals, too quickly and without cautious scrutiny of the evidence, label others and then direct behavior toward them that corresponds with the label. But research has found that stereotypes are often used out of our awareness, which makes it very difficult for us to correct for them. In these situations, there is a discrepancy between our positive concept of our skills and abilities and the negative stereotypes suggesting poor performance. Princeton won but commentary in the local papers continued for some time about the disgusting display of poor sportsmanship. People are often biased against others outside of their own social group, showing prejudice (emotional bias), stereotypes (cognitive bias), and discrimination (behavioral bias). Explain whether emotions can predict intolerance. Because stereotypes and prejudice often operate out of our awareness, and also because people are frequently unwilling to admit that they hold them, social psychologists have developed methods for assessing them indirectly. Social categorization occurs spontaneously, without much thought on our part (Crisp & Hewstone, 2007). Tetlock, P. E., & Mitchell, G. (2008). Traditionally, neuroimaging studies on social perception have associated the evaluation of facial trustworthiness with the amygdala (Todorov, Mende-Siedlecki, & Dotsch, 2013). In fact, just knowing that stereotype threat exists and may influence performance can help alleviate its negative impact (Johns, Schmader, & Martens, 2005). Jones, E. E., & Sigall, H. (1971). Calibrating prejudice in milliseconds. Although in some cases the stereotypes that are used to make judgments might actually be true of the individual being judged, in many other cases they are not. The tendency to categorize others is normally quite useful. We tend to see people who belong to the same social group as more similar than they actually are, and we tend to judge people from different social groups as more different than they actually are. Nosek, B. doi: 10.1111/j.1751–9004.2010.00306.x. Influence of impression-management goals on the emerging content of group stereotypes: Support for a social-evolutionary perspective. ... racially categorize people and the consequences of such categorization. Specifically, he found that although lines C and D (which are actually the same length) were perceived as equal in length when the lines were not categorized, line C was perceived as being significantly longer than line D in the condition in which the lines were categorized. (1984). Ford, in Encyclopedia of Stress (Second Edition), 2007 Conservation of Resources Theory. The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects presents a comprehensive collection of the most up-to-date research on the uses and impacts of media throughout the world. Scientific American, 223, 96–102. In short, Sarah is now arguing her points not so much for herself as she is as a representative of one of her ingroups—namely, women—and John is acting as a representative of one of his ingroups—namely, men. Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Theories of personality that describe behavior and the etiology of atypical behavior. When patients have low scores on Social Perception and Faces, they may have a general deficit in face processing that may be affecting their performance on the Social Perception test. Moreover, both behavioral and neural indices of this devaluation were predicted by lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) activity, such that greater recruitment of this inhibitory control mechanism during the go/no-go task was associated with both less trustworthy evaluations of and greater amygdala activity in response to no-go faces. Group dynamics and organizational structures (e.g., school systems, gang behavior, family systems, group thinking, cultural behavior, conformity, compliance, obedience, persuasion) and social influences on individual functioning. The tendency to see members of social groups as similar to each other is particularly strong for members of outgroups, resulting in outgroup homogeneity—the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups (Linville, Salovey, & Fischer, 1986; Ostrom & Sedikides, 1992; Meissner & Brigham, 2001). Crisp, R. J., & Hewstone, M. Sarah feels quite the contrary—arguing that women have been the targets of sexism for many, many years and even now do not have the same access to high-paying jobs that men do. A classic example of this tendency toward bias in perception was provided by Hastorf and Cantril (1954). 1.1 Defining Social Psychology: History and Principles, 1.3 Conducting Research in Social Psychology, 2.3 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Social Cognition, 3.1 Moods and Emotions in Our Social Lives, 3.3 How to Feel Better: Coping With Negative Emotions, 3.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Social Affect, 4.3 The Social Self: The Role of the Social Situation, 4.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About the Self, 5.2 Changing Attitudes Through Persuasion, 5.3 Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior, 5.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Attitudes, Behavior, and Persuasion, 6.2 Inferring Dispositions Using Causal Attribution, 6.3 Individual and Cultural Differences in Person Perception, 6.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Person Perception, 7.3 Person, Gender, and Cultural Differences in Conformity, 7.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Conformity, 8.2 Close Relationships: Liking and Loving Over the Long Term, 8.3 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Liking and Loving, 9.1 Understanding Altruism: Self and Other Concerns, 9.2 The Role of Affect: Moods and Emotions, 9.3 How the Social Context Influences Helping, 9.5 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Altruism, 10.2 The Biological and Emotional Causes of Aggression, 10.3 The Violence Around Us: How the Social Situation Influences Aggression, 10.4 Personal and Cultural Influences on Aggression, 10.5 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Aggression, 11.2 Group Process: The Pluses and Minuses of Working Together, 11.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Social Groups, 12.1 Social Categorization and Stereotyping, 12.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination, 13.1 Conflict, Cooperation, Morality, and Fairness, 13.2 How the Social Situation Creates Conflict: The Role of Social Dilemmas, 13.3 Strategies for Producing Cooperation, 13.4 Thinking Like a Social Psychologist About Cooperation and Competition.
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